Conservation of Fresco Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Conservation of Fresco - Essay Example Innumerable artists practiced fresco painting during the years to come, and this art became popular through the Greek, Roman and Byzantine Empires. Unfortunately, not many frescos have survived. Some rare Roman frescos are found in Herculaneum and Pompeii. Christians wo lived during the early period from 250 to 400 AD, painted some small frescos as a form of decoration of Roman catacombs, the burial place. The popularity of fresco painting declined after the Renaissance. But Mexican painters Diego Rivera, Jose Orozco, and David Siqueiros were using the techniques of fresco painting in their murals and through this once again the revitalization of fresco art took place. Again during the American Depression, painters like Thomas Hart Benton were engaged in fresco production. Now, fresco art is no longer used as it was used before, the main reason is because of its susceptibility to humidity and weathering. Regard to this reason, many artists have abandoned the fresco painting in the production of serious art. This paper will try to explain a little about fresco painting in general and then move on to the process and technique used in the production of fresco art. Then the paper would deal about the conservation of fresco paintings and finally explain its importance. Calcium carbonate is the binding material that is used in the production of fresco art. ... This results in the formation of calcium carbonate upon the surface of the material thus forming the plaster. The colour is applied before this change occurs so that it gets settled underneath the plaster formation which then looks similar to a glass. When viewed through a microscope, a particle or piece of fresco looks like thousands of minute mosaic put together and creates an astounding appearance. The art produced in such a way is called as fresco art or painting. It is not very difficult to paint a simple fresco if we are well aware of the process and technique. Many people throughout the world are engaged in fresco painting as entertainment or part of their hobby. Finally, to make this process very easy here is a short cut. Fresco painting is nothing but applying pure colour onto wet lime and the next thing that happens is the formation of crystalline substance over the wet surface. Now, the whole thing dries up producing fresco. One of the great things to have in mind is that all over the world ancient people followed this process in the creation of fresco art. Though the people of the ancient civilization had no means of communication, yet they all followed the same process in the making of painting and this is so surprising to us. It has led modern chemists to analyse the process through the study of ancient artists of different places. ELEMENTS OF FRESCO There are five elements that are used for creating a fresco. I have listed out one by one below so that there may not be any confusion. 1. The Structural Wall - This wall is the physical body in which the artist creates the fresco art. 2. The Design - Refers to the fresco's environment or architectural setting. 3. Lime

Teaching People of Other Cultures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Teaching People of Other Cultures - Essay Example nner World of the Immigrant Child.† This work will detail the important factors to consider while teaching English in a class of people from other cultures. The first thing I learned was the necessity to dig deep into their background. According to Igoa every teacher involved with people of a different culture must first seek to understand the basics of the culture from which his/her students are drawn. Here I learned that the various cultures offer distinct values that an english teacher needs to understand in order to avoid a case where a student feels offended by being forced to abandon a value he/she that has been part and parcel of his/her past life. I understood how serious this idea is when relating to Igoa’s experience as an immigrant student. In her confession she stated â€Å"I come from another land, another culture. I have been unearthed and am a seedling in a new land. The change upsets the kind of life I had. It is hard to go into the classroom (Christine pg.190). Based on this statement I learned that the entire process of introducing a student to learning a new language is frustrating and will thus require help o f the teacher to ensure a smooth transition. Still in the same idea, every English teacher apart from knowing who his/her students really are and where they came from, need to establish how much knowledge of the new Langiuage they have, and how to help them move forward.(Christine Pg.7). I believe that if this is considered carefully, the process of orienting students to the new language will progress with fewer difficulties. The second idea is the need for the teacher to establish a learning environment that will allow students feel relaxed and willing to learn English. I have learned that new culture setting demands new approach and thus teachers should always lead the way in helping immigrants children develop the willingness to adapt to the demands of the new culture. As a teacher dealing with such a student, my role is to ensure

Aspects of Health and Health Promotion

Aspects of Health and Health Promotion 1) Exercise, in addition to promoting a general feeling of physical well being and aiding weight loss, actually confers protection against disease. Exercise decreases the incidence of coronary heart disease (Powell, 1987). The exercise, to be effective for cardiac protection, needs to be sufficient to increase the cardiac output for some fifteen minutes, and it needs to be taken on a regular basis two or three times a week. Exercise is generally good for health and there are numerous documented health benefits (RCP, 1991). A Mediterranean diet is one which is rich in vegetables, fruit, fish and cereals as well as being accompanied by a small intake of red wine. The amount of red meat is fairly modest as also is the dairy intake. There is evidence that such a diet taken by older people actually prolongs their survival (Trichopoulou, 2005). This study was carried out as a part of the wider EPIC study which investigates the effects of lifestyle on cancer and on other chronic diseases (Riboli, 2002). 2) Obesity is an increasing public health issue in the UK today since an increasing proportion of the population is becoming overweight. Obesity is defined objectively as a body mass index of 30 or more kg/m2. The body mass index is calculated as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in metres. As the body mass index rises so the risk of type 2 diabetes also increases (Colditz, 1990). Type 2 diabetes is a major health problem in that it predisposes an individual to a variety of illnesses particularly coronary heart disease. Additionally an increased proportion of saturated fat in the diet is linearly associated with the development of type 2 diabetes (Krentz, 2001) and so it is not just a high body mass index but other aspects of the diet itself which predispose to ill health. Smoking is strongly associated with lung cancer and actual mortality from lung cancer in addition to increased incidence and mortality from other cancers (Doll, 1994). The amount of cigarettes smoked correlates with the degree of risk (Doll, 1994). Smoking also increases mortality from coronary artery disease and stroke (Doll, 1994). Of people who smoke regularly one half will die of a smoking related disorder (Doll, 1994). In evaluating the effects of smoking the Health Education Authority (HEA) (1991) reports that smoking kills 110 000 people each year in the UK. This means that smoking causes one in every six deaths. The HEA (1991) reports that 225 000 hospital admissions annually are due to smoking. 3) When evaluating an individual’s or even one’s own lifestyle, with regard to health, areas of behaviour that could be improved can be further evaluated. For instance there is the danger aspect of the lifestyle for example with abuse of drugs. Such a lifestyle of drug addiction is very likely to be associated with much health morbidity and social disadvantage and in addition a high likelihood of drug related death. Other aspects of an unhealthy lifestyle to consider are the ease with which a change can be made to the specific factor. For instance there might not be the financial means to move from a polluted inner city home or to join an expensive gym. Priority setting should take account of the danger aspect and changes in these life style aspects should be enacted without delay. Stopping smoking radically reduces the risk of developing lung cancer and stopping smoking before middle age avoids 90 per cent of the smoking related health risks (Peto, 2000). Stopping smoking improves the individual’s general quality of life with fewer reports of illness (Parrott 2004). If will power cannot overcome the addiction to nicotine then nicotine replacement medication can be given in a variety of ways and is likely to prove beneficial in breaking the habit (Parrott, 2004). Losing excess weight will improve health. This has been evaluated by Chambers (2002) as a ten per cent body weight loss in an obese person being associated with more than a 30 per cent reduction in risk of diabetic related death. It is also associated with a decrease in blood pressure and a decrease in triglyceride and harmful cholesterol. There is a corresponding increase in the beneficial high density lipoprotein within the blood. 4) Naidoo (2000) describes five health promotion methods. Although they have some overlap they each have a different emphasis. The medical method is largely a preventative one. The educational method improves people’s knowledge whilst the behavioural approach concentrates on altering patterns of behaviour so that the individual learns by doing. Empowerment encourages ownership of problems and self determination to do something about them. The social change is important to create an environment which fosters healthy choices. To assist the smoker in giving up it is the educational and behavioural approaches that are the most appropriate. However the social aspect whereby smoking has become less acceptable also plays an important role. Additionally the legislation making it much more difficult to smoke in public places and the heavy taxation on tobacco also goes some way towards discouraging the habit. The same three methods are important in achieving weight loss in obese people. The behavioural approach also involves some aspect of education and so any evaluation of the effects that are solely due to the behavioural approach are difficult. The educational method of health promotion can be broken down further into the three areas of understanding, attitudes and skills (Naidoo, 2000). The effects of the education approach itself are relatively easy to evaluate by studying the patient’s knowledge before and after an educational intervention. 5) Information leaflets are available at general practitioner’s surgeries and within hospitals giving information about smoking cessations and how to get help with pharmacological agents when necessary. The suitability will vary according to the patient’s needs and attitude at the time of seeing the leaflet. A particularly useful approach is where, as is the case with cigarette smoking, there is health promotion material in a variety of formats for instance also including a website. Advice and information on the advisability or being an appropriate weight for one’s height is also available in a number of formats. When evaluating material on an internet site it is important for the source to be acknowledged and for the site to be continually kept up to date (Ewles, 2004). The Government generated slogan â€Å"eat five a day† is designed to reinforce the message that eating fruit and vegetables in the diet is advantageous for health and it promotes a higher intake of these foods. It is a short catchy message which has been widely disseminated in a number of formats. It has reached a very wide audience and is likely to be increasing peoples’ intake of fruit and vegetables. The message is short and confined to increased intake of particular foods but does not encompass within its message that these foods should be eaten instead of high fat or high sugar content foods. If the message had incorporated a slogan about food substitution it might have had more effect on obesity. 6) Fear can be a motivator for instance the knowledge that drink driving is a strict liability offence and will result in the removal of the individual’s driving licence and resulting major inconvenience and also social stigma. Shock can be a motivating factor for instance the television advertisements in the drink driving campaigns leading up to Christmas are often designed to present the message in an emotive way to really bring home to the individual the grief that drink driving can bring about. The health belief model (Naidoo, 2000) suggests that people need to have a trigger or an event in order to change their behaviour. The theory of reasoned action (Ajzen, 1980) encompasses the individual actually weighing up the advantages and disadvantages of changing together with a desire to conform to what every one else is doing. The conformity aspect is particularly important within this theory. The social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) involves outcome expectations and belief in the ability to make the change. This is particularly pertinent to the decision by an obese person to lose weight. 7) To maintain the change the health promotion messages need to be kept up and be consistent. A change in the behaviour of others coupled with changes in social attitudes (for instance in giving up smoking) may be helpful.The messages about not smoking from advertising and messages for instance in soap operas by actors refusing cigarettes will still have an effect on the individual who has given up smoking. It is likely that such messages as well as being noticed by the ex-smoker will have particular meaning for them and act as continual motivators to their healthier lifestyle. Once a change in behaviour has come about, for instance eating a better diet or not smoking, the health benefits of actually feeling better and more attractive may be motivators to maintaining the improved behaviour. These motivating factors may constitute a resistance to change as behaviour becomes set in the new way (Lewin 1951). References Ajzen I Fishbein M 1980 Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour. Prentice Hall. Bandura A 1977 Social learning theory. Prentice Hall. Chambers R Wakley G 2002 Obesity and overweight matters in primary care. Radcliffe. Oxford Colditz GA Willett WC Stampfer MJ et al 1990 American Journal of Epidemiology 132 501-13. Doll R Peto R Wheatley R 1994 Mortality in relation to smoking: 40 years observation on male British doctors. British Medical Journal 309 901-11 Ewles l Simnett 2004 Promoting health a practical guide 5th edition Bailliere Tindall London Health Education Authority (1991) The smoking epidemic: counting the cost in England and Wales. HEA. London Krentz AJ Bailey CJ 2001 Type 2 diabetes in practice. Royal Society of Medicine Press London. Lewin K 1951 Field theory in social science; selected theoretical papers. Harper and Row New York Naidoo J Wills J 2000 Health promotion foundations for practice 2nd edition Bailliere Tindall London Parrott S Godfrey C 2004 ABC of smoking cessation. British Medical Journal 328 947-9 Peto R Darby S Doe H 2000 Smoking, smoking cessation, and lung cancer in the UK since 1950: combination of national statistics with two case control studies. British Medical Journal 321 323-9 Powell KE Thompson PD Caspersen CJ et al 1987 Physical activity and the incidence of CHD. Annual review of Public Health 8 253-87. RCP (Royal College of Physicians) 1991 medical aspects of exercise: benefits and risks. Journal of the Royal College of Physicians. 25 193-6. Riboli E Hunt KJ Slimani N 2002 European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC) study populations and data collection. Public Health Nutr 1113-24 Trichopoulou A Orfanos P Norat T et al 2005 modified Mediterranean diet and survival: EPIC-elderly prospective cohort study BMJ 330 991

Poem Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night :: Dyland Thomas

In the poem "Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night," written by Dylan Thomas, emphasizes resistance towards death as he repeats this exhortation in the last line in every stanza. Imagery is used by Thomas to create the theme of his poem and what it means. Although readers are unaware of the details behind the on coming death of Thomas father, the motives of the author for writing this poem are very obvious. Thomas intends to pursuit his father to resist against death and for him to fight for life. Through "Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night," Thomas conveys resistance towards death with images of fury and fighting to symbolize the great anger and rage Thomas feels towards the thought of loosing his dying father, though upon first reading then seem banal. Initially, Thomas uses images of fury and fighting in the lines "do not go gentle", "good night" and "dying of the light" to emphasize the resistance towards death. With these images, Thomas conveys death as the end and where darkness prevails. He takes his stand within concrete, particular existence. He places birth and death at the poles of his vision. Excessive images of anger and rage towards death exemplify the passion Thomas feels for life. Secondly, Thomas brings into action images of "burn" and "rave at close of day" to show and emphasize the resistance towards death. Contrasting images of light and darkness in the poem create warmth of living and the coldness of death, so as to discourage people from choosing the dreary, bitter frigidity of death. In addition, Thomas uses images of " wise men" and " grave men [who] have not used their blinding sight" to tell his dying father that all men smart or ignorant, need to resistance towards death.

Philosophy, Deductive Arguments

Philosophy Homework 15/09/2011 Deductive Arguments: A deductive argument isn’t necessarily valid, it could be invalid. It also isn’t necessarily sound – it could be unsound. If the argument is valid and the premises are true then overall the argument is sound. You will always gain knowledge with a deductive argument. The first premise will link with the second premise in order to make a conclusion. Deductive arguments aren’t based on assumptions.Inductive Arguments: The premises are all true so therefore the conclusion is likely to be true; however it isn’t definite that the conclusion will be true. It is usually probable that the conclusion will be true, but there is a chance it’s false. For example: Katherine is a girl (premise) A lot of girls paint their nails (premise) Katherine paints her nails (conclusion) -Katherine might not like wearing nail varnish, it’s just an assumption that she does because she is a girl. Necessary truths : Something that will always be true no matter what the circumstances or situation is.An example would be that ‘I am a female’. Contingent truths: A truth that in some cases may be true, however it could also have been false. If there is anyway in which this truth could be false, it is contingent. An example of this would be ‘Dogs have 4 legs’; some dogs have to have legs amputated, therefore isn’t true in every case. A Priori: Knowledge that has not been supported by an experience or an actual fact. A Posteriori: Knowledge that is backed up by experience/observation or an actual fact.

Juvenile Justice

Vineet Advani Mrs. Sheaffer English 7 4 December 2011 Should Juveniles Be Tried As Adults Unmoved by his mother's description of him as â€Å"a kind and gentle soul,† a Harris County jury come to a decision on Wednesday that 18-year-old, Robert Acuna, should be put on a life without parole sentence for murdering two elderly neighbors in a quiet town. Prosecutors presented little elucidation for why the Sterling High School junior, who worked part time at a fast-food restaurant, shot James Carroll, 75, and his wife, Joyce, 74, execution style. He has evil in his heart,† Assistant District Attorney Renee Magee told jurors as she urged them to return a death sentence (film). Acuna was 17 at the time of the murders. The U. S. Supreme Court plans to consider later this year whether it is constitutional to execute killers who were younger than 18 when they committed their crimes. The age of 18 brings about freedom for young people in America. At 18, an individual legally becom es an â€Å"adult†. An individual can now buy cigarettes or a home, enter adult-only clubs, vote, and even get married. Furthermore, from their 18th birthday and beyond, individuals are no longer tried for crimes in juvenile courts. Now, they are tried in adult courts. But, does one or two years make such a difference between sixteen year olds and eighteen year olds? Is it fair for one person, just seventeen years of age, to be tried in a juvenile court, receiving a lesser sentence for murder than an individual just six months older or more in age who committed the same crime? I think not. Many articles like â€Å"Kids are Kids – Until They Commit Crimes† by Marjie Lundstrom, â€Å"Supreme Court to Rule on Executing Young Killers† by Adam Liptak, â€Å"Startling Finds on Teenage Brains† by Paul Thompson and â€Å"Many Kids Called Unfit for Adult Trial† by Greg Krikorian show different views on this topic. But, I think trying juveniles as adults should be consistently allowed because juveniles are mature enough to that murder is wrong; it reduces crime; having consequences harsher for violent crimes in juvenile act as preclusion to the youth; and trying juveniles as adults allows society to express a simple message Maturity ought to determine culpability, not numerical age. While it is true that juveniles, as a group, are less mature and slower brain development rates and thus, level of maturity varies greatly from individual to individual. According Dr. Moin, Assistant Professor of Law at the University of Alberta, â€Å"Simply because the average youth is less mature than the average adult does not mean that the particular juvenile who commits a heinous crime is less culpable. There may be very mature and calculating youth and very immature and naive adults. † Furthermore, Dr. Brian Woo of Pepperdine University Law School states that, â€Å"Rather than consider juveniles as a class in the aggregate, age alone cannot be substituted as a measure of an individual's maturity or psychological development†¦. Rather than adopt a bright line rule, the Court should allow the jury to factor in any mitigating evidence, i. e. , youth or immaturity, when determining an appropriate sentence. † Thus, trying juveniles as adults allows culpability to determine the degree and severity of punishment rather than whether or not an individual committed a crime the day before or the day after their 18th birthday. Punishment is expressive and sends a clear message against crime. Trying juveniles as adults gives society the ability to express the moral outrage of certain acts. According to David Gelenter of Yale University, â€Å"we execute murderers in order to make a communal proclamation: that murder is intolerable. A deliberate murderer embodies evil so terrible that it defiles the community. Thus the late social philosopher Robert Nisbet: â€Å"Until a catharsis has been affected through trial, through the finding of guilt and then punishment, the community is anxious, fearful, apprehensive, and above all, contaminated. Individual citizens have a right and sometimes a duty to speak. A community has the right, too, and sometimes the duty. The community certifies births and deaths, creates marriages, educates children, and fights invaders. In laws, deeds, and ceremonies it lays down the boundary lines of civilized life, lines that are constantly getting scuffed and needing renewal. † Thus, trying juveniles as adults allows society to express a simple message – certain acts are simply intolerable. Trying Juveniles as adults reduces crime. It is a simple law of economics that by increasing the cost of certain activities, individuals are less likely to engage in those activities. Dr. Moin states that in a study by Dr. Levitt â€Å"there was a statistically significant negative relationship between crime rates of juvenile offenders and length of sentencing. † Dr. Moin goes on to state that † What these studies show is that juveniles do respond to arrest rates and punishment, especially for violent crimes, and that they respond at least as much to punishment as adults do. Thus, trying juveniles as adults reduces crime by deterring others and preventing those susceptible to crime from having the ability to do so. Juveniles are more likely to be raped in the Juvenile Justice System. Rather than protecting juvenile offenders, the juvenile justice system endangers them far greater than the adult system. According to David Kaiser â€Å"Across the country, 12. 1% of kids questioned in the Bureau of Justice Statist ics survey said that they'd been sexually abused at their current facility during the preceding year. That's nearly one in eight. In total, according to the most recent data, there are nearly 93,000 kids in juvenile detention on any given day†¦ we can say confidently that the BJS's 3,220 figure represents only a small fraction of the children sexually abused in detention every year. † The reason for this epidemic is clear. According to David Kaiser, â€Å"Adults who want to have sex with children sometimes look for jobs that will make it easy. They want authority over kids, but no onerous supervision; they also want positions that will make them seem more trustworthy than their potential accusers. In a sense, juvenile detention facilities are like flashing neon lights for potential pedophiles. This is by no means rehabilitative. Having consequences harsher for violent crimes in juvenile acts as an avoidance to the youth. The prevention theory states that if the consequence of committing a crime outweighs the benefit of the crime itself, the individual will be deterred from committing the crime. Prof essor of law Scot and professor of psychology Steinberg said â€Å"first, the threat of harsh sanctions may deter future crime generally by discouraging youths from ever getting involved in criminal activity. Second, imprisonment prevents crime by incapacitating offenders. Third, imprisonment could reduce future crime by rehabilitating young offenders so that they will mend their criminal ways† Champion and Mays, Criminal Justice Professors at California State University said Deterrence presumes that punishing an offender will prevent him or her from committing further acts of deviance, or will dissuade others from law-violating behavior, and the transfer of juveniles to adult court should serve a deterrent function. The adult criminal justice system has a worse punishment than the juvenile court therefore it will serve as a better deterrent factor to stop the juvenile violent crime. Effective deterrence will be able to ensure safety because it will stop the crime before it happens. When the consequences are worse, there will be less crime; therefore Juveniles should be treated as adults in the criminal justice system if they committed a violent crime. Others might say juvenile’s brains aren't as developed as adults. However, you are taught to know what is right and wrong so how does your brain being not fully developed affect your capability of knowing that murder is wrong. According to Terence T. Gorski is an internationally recognized expert on substance abuse, mental health, violence, & crime and others qualified professionals, (Ed. Judy Layzell. Ortiz, Adam. ) â€Å"Scientific studies have determined that the human brain undergoes continuous development up to the age of about twenty-one. Because the brains of juveniles, particularly the frontal lobes, are not fully developed, youths lack the ability to perform critical adult functions, such as plan, anticipate consequences, and control impulses,† states Adam Ortiz, a policy fellow with the American Bar Association Juvenile Justice Center. Although juveniles should be punished for their crimes, they are not as responsible as adults. â€Å"This is the premise beneath society's across-the-board restrictions on voting rights, alcohol and tobacco consumption, and serving in the armed forces,† observes Ortiz. Indeed, this is why we refer to those under 18 as `minors' and `juveniles'—because, in so many respects, they are less than adult. † Murder however is a different story since you end someone’s life. As I said, Juveniles are TAUGHT to know what is wrong and right. The mentality of the newer generations is generally higher than the children from 30 years ago. Murder is wrong and if juveniles know it’s wrong and still commits murder, why should we still go easy on them and treat them as juveniles? In summary, trying juveniles as adults is justified by both deontological and practical views of justice by ensuring culpability is the standard of punishment all the while deterring crime and protecting juveniles from abuse. From writing this essay, I have learned that if I was a lawyer and I was against a juvenile in adult court, I would treat him like any other criminal because of the severity of their crime not the perpetuator’s age. Even though the juveniles are under 18, they still have learned that murder is wrong and I will treat them as if they know that murder is wrong because it is a idea everyone knows. Work cited page Film When Kids Get Life. Ofra Bikel. Dir. Nathan Ybanez, Erik Jenson, Trever Jones. Andrew Medina. Perf. PBS. 2007. film Articles Thompson, Paul. â€Å"Startling Finds on Teenage Brains. † Sacramento Bee [Sacramento, CA] 25 May 2001. Pg 1-2 Krikorian, Greg. â€Å"Many Kids Called Unfit For Trial. † The Sacramento Bee [Sacramento, CA] 3 Mar. 2003: 1-2. Print. Liptak, Adam. â€Å"Supreme Court to Rule on Executing Young Killers. † The New York Times [New York City, NY] 3 Jan. 2005: 1-2. Print. Lundstorm, Marjie. â€Å"Kids Are Kids-Until They Commit Crimes. † The Sacramento Bee [Sacramento, CA] 1 Mar. 2001: 1-2. Print. Juvenile Justice According to the article â€Å"Many Kids Called Unfit for Adult Trial,† 200,000 juveniles a year are being tried as adults in the United States. They are sentenced to life in prison and even the death penalty. But is that what is really best for them? Putting these teenagers in prison for life gives them no chance to change their lives around and learn from what they’ve done. I strongly believe that adolescents should not be sentences as adults but still deserve a huge punishment. Teenagers should not be tried as adults because teenager’s brains are not fully developed as adult brains are.In his article â€Å"Startling Finds on Teenage Brains,† Paul Thompson states, â€Å"The biggest surprise in recent teen-brain research is the finding that a massive loss of brain tissue occurs in the teen years. † How are these teens supposed to understand what they are doing if they are not fully mature and aren’t mentally stable? Thompson also says that, â€Å"Brain cells and connections are only being lost in the areas controlling impulses, risk-taking, and self-control. † These children are not aware of how serious their actions are and therefore, should be helped immediately.These kids who are being tries as adults are not mentally capable of defending themselves. According to Laurence Steinberg, a Temple University psychology professor, â€Å"It is a violation of constitutional right to be a defendant in a criminal proceeding when you are not competent to defend yourself. † These juveniles being tried as adults do not understand the proceedings. They don’t recognize the risks in different choices and are less likely to think about long term consequences. For example, Robert Acuna, a high school student from Baytown, Texas, was given the death sentence for killing two elderly neighbors.In the article â€Å"Supreme Court to Rule on Executing Young Killer,† Ms. Magee said, â€Å"He was very nonchalant. He laughed at inappropriate things. He still didn’t quite get the magnitude of everything he did. † There are many other teens like Robert who don’t think before their actions. Acuna may have killed his two elderly neighbors and stolen their car, but his punishment should not have been death. I don’t think that anyone should have the power to decide who should live or die, not matter what they have done. The judge who decides this and the executor who killed these kids should not be alive anymore than Robert Acuna is.Taking these kids’ lives away or putting them in prison for life gives them no chance to change their lives around. I highly doubt that they will learn a lesson in prison. Even though I don’t think kids should be tries as adults, they still need some sort of punishment. As Paul Thompson said, â€Å"While research on brain tissue loss can help us to understand teens better, it cannot be used to excuse their violent or homicidal b ehavior. But it can be used as evidence that teenagers are not yet adults and the legal system shouldn’t treat them as such. They could stay in jail with other teens but not for life. I also think that they need help from a therapist or psychiatrist. They are seriously impaired and need help to steer their lives in the right direction. Prison is a negative environment and will only make them worse and lead to more problems such as fights and violence. These juveniles are kids! They don’t have the same rights as adults. They aren’t allowed to drink, smoke, vote, get married, etc. They are not ready to take care of themselves or live on their own. In the article â€Å"Kids are Kids-Until They Commit Crimes,† a Democratic State Rep.Ron Wilson of Houston said, â€Å"You want to throw the adult book at kids? Fine! Lower the voting age to fourteen. † I agree with Wilson. Kids aren’t allowed to vote because they aren’t mature and for the sam e reason, they should not be tried as adults. Even though these kids have made huge mistakes, I think they deserve a second chance in life. They shouldn’t be tried as adults nor be sentenced to die. This doesn’t mean that they get away with the crimes they’ve committed, it just means they won’t be in prison their whole life for a crime they committed when they were kids. Juvenile Justice Treatment vs. Punishment There are many different types of crimes committed by juvenile delinquents in today’s society. These crimes consist of violent crimes, property crimes, forgery, fraud, vandalism as well as many others. In 2009, there were 32,638,900 youths in the United States and 1,906,600 of them were arrested for a type of crime. (Puzzanchera & Adams, 2012). There are many options that the Department of Juvenile Justice System can lead towards such as punishment or treatment, but the rehabilitation depends on the juvenile at hand.Most research suggests there is a reduced recidivism amongst juveniles who receive treatment. Treatment options are the ideal way to deal with juvenile delinquency. Juvenile Delinquency The definition of juvenile delinquency is a behavior against the criminal code, committed by an individual who has not reached proper adulthood by state or federal law. (Bartol & Bartol, 2011). Different states have different age of jurisdictions ranging fro m ages 15 through 17 which 37 states have adopted. â€Å"The age of the youth dictates whether the juvenile court or the adult court system has authority over the case. (Listwan, 2013, Sec 1. 2). For instance, if a juvenile committed a crime in Michigan at the age of 17 the jurisdiction would be in adult court system. Treatment and Punishment Concepts There is a debate on whether juvenile delinquents should be punished for their crimes, or if they should be rehabilitated for the crimes they committed. When many people look at the court system they may believe that the juvenile justice system is geared towards punishment but in the past, the juvenile justice system was geared towards rehabilitation. Historically, the juvenile justice system was oriented toward rehabilitation and care of the youth. † (Listwan, 2013, Sec 1. 3). In recent years, society is getting back to rehabilitation concepts by incorporating different treatment options whereas in the 1970’s a psycholog ist by the name of Robert Martinson did a study on whether or not treatment reduced recidivism rates. In his study, Martinson concluded that treatment did not lead to lower recidivism rates and stated, â€Å"Nothing works† when it came to treatment. (Listwan, 2013).Currently in the midst of juvenile delinquency, research is showing that treatment services are working by as much as 30–35 percent. (Listwan, 2013). In Australia, a study was conducted on recidivism rates for juvenile offenders and they reported that 1,500 juvenile justice clients reoffended, which was a 61 percent increase. (Day, Howells & Rickwood, 2004). They were astonished by this number and began to implement rehabilitation known as a â€Å"what works† approach to offenders. â€Å"This approach can be summarized by a core set of principles of human service delivery.Collectively, these principles suggest that reductions in recidivism can be maximized when programs select appropriate candidates, target factors that directly relate to their offending, and are delivered in ways that facilitate learning. † (Day, Howells & Rickwood, 2004, Para 5). This program appears to be working at the recidivism rates are decreasing. The United States is also implementing rehabilitation programs to help reduce recidivism rates. â€Å"More than 30 years of research has produced a body of evidence that clearly demonstrates that rehabilitation programs work. (Przybylski, 2008, Pg 2). Juvenile Sex Offenders and Juvenile Justice Intervention Strategy A juvenile sex offender is described as a youth who has been convicted of a sex crime which may include rape, sodomy, fondling, or other forced sexual act. (Listwan, 2013). Numerous people believe that society should throw away the key on these juvenile sex offenders. â€Å"Sex offenders are often placed on the lowest rung of the criminal hierarchy— meaning that most people feel that sex offenders are the worst of the worst. † (Listwan, 2013, Sec 9. 4).In some cases, if a child does not receive the proper counseling needed, they can grow up committing the same acts of violence which were bestowed on them. For instance, â€Å"violence becomes a learned problem-solving technique transmitted from one generation to the next in a phenomenon known as the cycle of violence. † (Collica & Furst, 2012, Sec 7. 1). If a youth does end up committing this act of violence, they are first adjudicated by the court system and will receive their sentencing. A judge will either send them to a treatment facility or else may send them to a detention center depending on the age of the juvenile.All judges seem to believe that family structure and prior record are almost equally important factors in determining offenders' likelihood of rehabilitation. (D'Angelo, 2010). There are many treatment facilities which deal specifically with juvenile sex offenders. Psychologists are becoming more optimistic in the treatment of sex offenders. â€Å"First, they believe that the most effective interventions, or treatment methods, are those that follow the principles of risk, need, and responsivity (RNR). † (Bartol & Bartol, 2011, Pg 403).Other treatment which appears to be successful is cognitive behavioral therapy which shapes the behavior as well as thinking pattern in offenders. This therapy teaches juveniles on their thinking pattern on some situation and how that can influence their actions in some situations. â€Å"Cognitive behavior therapy argues that maladaptive sexual behaviors are learned according to the same rules as normal sexual behavior, by means of classical and/or instrumental conditioning, modeling, reinforcement, generalization, and punishment. † (Bartol & Bartol, 2011, Pg 404).A great deal of studies suggests that cognitive behavior therapy appears to be the best treatment in reducing recidivism amongst juvenile delinquents whether this include sexual offences or any other type of offences. Juveniles who complete a cognitive-behavioral program are less likely to commit sexual or any re-offenses than are juveniles who do not receive treatment, receive an alternative treatment, or do not complete treatment. (Przybylski, 2008, Pg 53). Multisystemic therapy (MST) is also a successful treatment approach for serious juvenile offenders.This therapy option addresses the cognitive and systemic factors such as family, peers, as well as school which are associated with risk factors. The juvenile, counselor as well as the family work together. In a study conducted, â€Å"The data showed that MST participants had significantly lower recidivism rates at follow-up than did those participants who received individual therapy (50% vs. 81%, respectively). Recidivism, depending on the study, refers to re-arrest, reconviction, or incarceration after an initial juvenile arrest, conviction, or incarceration. (Bartol & Bartol, 2011, Pg 168). In North Carolina, there is a succes sful intervention program called Sexual Abuse Intervention Services. This program is located at Barium Spring. This program offers, This program offers, psychosexual evaluation (Sex Offense Specific Evaluation), in-home family therapy, weekly sex offense specific group therapy, individual therapy, individualized safety plans in the home, school and community, case management—coordinating and monitoring services, ongoing consultation with juvenile court counselors to monitor client’s reatment progress and status in the home/community, family reunification when appropriate, step-down services for clients who are transitioning back into the community from residential placement. (Foster, 2013). This program believes in treating juvenile sex offenders to reduce recidivism. The program appears to be successful for the fact that many juvenile sex offender clients at a local group home attended this program and none of them have reoffended. Unfortunately, there is no data avai lable.Juvenile Crime Statistics Different states have different statistics on juvenile offenders. In 2009, 1,906,600 juveniles were arrested for various types of crimes in the United States. During that year, there were 722,000 youths in Arizona, 1,096,000 in Michigan, and 971,900 youths in North Carolina. (Puzzanchera, Adams, & Kang, 2012). In that same year, Arizona had 52,062 juveniles arrested for various crimes; Michigan had 36,643 juvenile arrested and North Carolina had 48,634 for various crimes.Statistics indicate that in Arizona, 1,366 juveniles were arrested for violent crimes including rape, robbery and aggravated assault and 11,181 were arrested for property crimes including burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, arson as well as many others. In Michigan there were 2,136 juveniles arrested for violent crimes and 10,993 were arrested for property crimes. North Carolina statistics show that 2,483 juveniles were arrested for violent crimes and 12,766 were arrested for prop erty crime. (Puzzanchera, Adams, & Kang, 2012).The arrest rate in juveniles has steadily decreased from the 1990’s through present time in Arizona, Michigan and North Carolina. Society would agree that this decrease in crime is beneficial to every person in the community. Arizona, Michigan and North Carolina juvenile arrests consist of every race including White, Black, Indian, Asian, Hispanic, as well as many others. Not one particular race committed any acts of violence, but instead all races. For instance, in Arizona, 10,259 White juveniles committed violent crimes and 34,070 committed property crimes. ,465 Black juveniles committed violent crimes and 3,191 committed property crimes including drug charges. 5,016 Hispanic juveniles committed violent crimes and 15,388 committed property crimes. (Halliday, 2011). In Michigan, violent crime data indicates that nine Black juveniles committed murders and one White committed murder. 476 black juveniles were arrested for aggravate d assault, 418 arrests for White juveniles, and 12 arrests of Hispanic juveniles. (Elam, Siemon & Fitzpatrick, 2012).As for robbery in Michigan, 384 were Black juveniles, whereas 39 were White and six were Hispanic juveniles. Property crimes such as larceny show that 3,131 arrests were White juveniles, 2,241 arrests were Black juveniles and 151 were Hispanic juveniles. (Elam, Siemon & Fitzpatrick, 2012). For burglary crimes, there were 630 arrests of White juveniles, 651 arrests of Black juveniles and 29 arrests of Hispanic juveniles. In North Carolina, the statistics are different than Arizona as well as Michigan. The state of North Carolina analyzes their data according to class felonies.For instance, in 2009 the juvenile arrest rate for Black juveniles with a class A-E felony which includes, murder, rape, sexual assault, manslaughter, drug crimes, sexual battery, robbery as well as others was 485 juveniles. (NCDJJ, 2010). There were 226 White juveniles convicted of a class A-E fe lony and 28 Hispanic. In the class F-I felony which includes property crimes, the data indicated 4,816 Black juveniles were arrested, 2,837 White juveniles were arrested as well as 1,670 Hispanics were arrested. (NCDJJ, 2010).Males along with females both account for crimes committed on adult as well as juvenile levels. Numerous people believe that males make up arrest statistics, but females contribute to these arrests. For instance, in the state of Arizona, 16,943 females were arrested in 2009. 34,659 juvenile males were arrested that same year. The female juveniles accounted for 4,611 violent crimes and 12,332 property crimes. 7,804 arrests were made for violent crimes amongst males and 26, 855 for property crimes. (Halliday, 2011).In Michigan, juvenile females accounted for 6,484 arrests in 2009. Male arrest rates were much higher at 14,814. (Elam, Siemon & Fitzpatrick, 2012). â€Å"The number of arrests statewide decreased for both male and female juveniles between 2005 and 20 09, with violent crimes by females decreasing more slightly than violent crimes by males. † (Elam, Siemon & Fitzpatrick, 2012, Pg 43). In 2009, there were 2,734 juvenile females arrested for larceny theft as well as 2,894 juvenile males arrested for larceny theft.Unfortunately, there was no data available for juvenile gender arrests except that all arrests made were 75% male juveniles. (NCDJJ, 2010). Different states have different age ranges on who commits an act of violence. Unfortunately, not all states have data on the age ranges for youths such as Arizona. In Michigan, for instance, 86 percent of arrests for sex offences were between the ages of 13 through 16. (Elam, Siemon & Fitzpatrick, 2012). In 2009, juveniles between the age of seven through 10, 276 were arrested which represented 1. percent of total arrests that year. (Elam, Siemon & Fitzpatrick, 2012). In North Carolina, 3. 11 undisciplined rates per 1,000 between the ages of six to 17 were arrested. The delinquent Rate per 1,000 between the ages of six to 15 was 29. 14 in 2009. (NCDJJ, 2010). State Treatment Every state has different treatment options for juveniles. Most states offer teen courts for juvenile delinquents. For instance, in Arizona, â€Å"Teen Court hears the matter and determines an appropriate, constructive consequence, using established guidelines. (Starky, 2012). These constructive consequences range from community service hours, restitution, a letter of apology, counseling, tutoring, research papers, educational classes, skill-building classes, as well as a few others. Arizona also offers early intervention programs such as Court Unified Truancy Suppression Program, Families in Need of Services, Drug Diversion Program, as well as School Safety Program. The state of Michigan also tries early intervention as well as treatment programs for their juvenile delinquents.For instance, Michigan currently has three rehabilitation facilities which focus on therapy as well as special ized treatment programs. Unfortunately, Michigan cut their budget on treatment facilities from 2000 which had approximately 10 facilities. This state offers early intervention programs one in particular called Juvenile Accountability Block Grants JABG program. This programs mission is to â€Å"Reduce juvenile offending through accountability-based programs focused on juvenile offenders and the juvenile justice system. † (DHS, 2013).North Carolina also prefers treatment instead of punishment. â€Å"The Division offers services for youth by establishing and maintaining a seamless comprehensive juvenile justice system that promotes juvenile delinquency prevention, intervention and treatment. † (NCDPS, 2012). North Carolina juvenile justice system focuses to strengthen families, promote delinquency prevention, support core social institutions, intervene immediately and effectively when delinquent behavior occurs and identify and control the small group of serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders in the local communities. NCDPS, 2012). North Carolina offers many facilities for juveniles around the state and a great deal of these facilities includes crime specific treatment. When juveniles are adjudicated and once they are released they may continue on the same path and commit other crimes. Often times, juveniles will continue with this circle and end up back in juvenile detention centers or on probation. The Arizona Department of Juvenile corrections had a 12 month recidivism rate of 34. 1percent for juveniles released during 2008.The number dropped from 2006 which indicated there was a 48 percent recidivism rate. (ADJC, 2010). In Michigan, the recidivism rate measured by a felony conviction was 22 percent at two years after release during 2004. The number dropped from the previous year at 24 percent. â€Å"Recidivism rates were higher for minority youths than for white youths. † (MDHS, 2013). In 2004 in North Carolina, the recidivism r ate for juvenile delinquents was 26. 7 percent. (Beck, Calhoun, Hevener & Katzenelson, 2007). Arizona appears to have the highest recidivism rate in all three states. TheoriesThere is no exact evidence which addresses juvenile delinquency but a mixture of biological, psychological and sociological. The biological theory explains that physical attributes as well as heredity may lead a juvenile to commit crimes. â€Å"Biological explanations of behavior focus on biological properties of an individual, including the individual's genetic background, structural damage in the brain, or the role of various chemicals in the nervous system. † (Wilson, 2012, Sec 1. 5). Heredity also plays a major role in behavior and criminal actions are believed to have run down in the family. Hereditary explanations of causation hold that criminality in some families is hereditary, and that deviance is genetically encoded in those born into the family group. † (Martin, 2005, Pg 76). Research be lieves that hormones may have an impact on people committing crimes such as higher testosterone. â€Å"Studies find that men with high levels of testosterone are more likely to be aggressive. More importantly, studies find that hormones can impact the brain, making individuals less sensitive to stimuli, so they in turn seek out more thrilling situations to stimulate their brain. (Listwan, 2013, Sec 3. 4). Another indicator could include the environment the juvenile resides. Environment can play a crucial role such a brain development, depression, anxiety, aggression as well as hyperactivity. Numerous people believe that the environment plays a significant role on behavior which can be stemmed from parents raising their children. â€Å"Criminals and delinquents are stimulated (reinforced) by their environment to continue acting out defiantly until they are punished in some manner. † (Martin, 2005, Pg 81).With this being said, when a juvenile is rewarded for their deviance, an d receive no punishment or treatment for breaking the law, they will continue to do so until they are adjudicated. Psychological theory which is also the personality theory suggests that there is a relationship between crime and personality. â€Å"Juvenile delinquents and adult criminals are, according to psychoanalytic theory, persons without sufficiently developed egos and superegos. If the moralistic superego is weak, a person can easily act out on his or her primal urges without remorse (an unchecked id), and mislabel deviance as acceptable behavior. (Martin, 2005, Pg 80). Another theory under the psychological theory is the conditioning theory. This portion explains that a person’s future behavior is conditioned by his or her past experiences. The interrelationships between individuals, socioeconomic groups, social processes, and societal structures are known as the sociological theory. It is believes that a lower living class has a higher crime rate. â€Å"The UCR sho ws that there is a class crime relationship, meaning crime rates are higher among those who are lower in class areas. (Listwan, 2013, Sec 3. 5). For instance, in many lower class areas, parents work to support their family, thus in return youths do not have any supervision. The youths in light of the freedom, tend to get into trouble. For instance, in Gladwin County in Michigan indicates this is the one of Michigan’s counties with the highest number of juvenile poverty rate which is over 29 percent. This county also has the state’s highest juvenile arrest rate. With this being said, socioeconomic considerations have an impact on the influences in juvenile delinquency.Treatment There are many treatment options for juveniles which have become readily available. The best type of treatment option would be early intervention. Youths should start young in learning to control their behavior as well as take responsibility for their actions. Numerous people will look at juvenil e delinquents and give up on their treatment. They may think that he or she is past the point of rehabilitation. A beneficial program that parents should incorporate in their daily lives is called the Incredible Years Series (IYS) Program.This program not only works for children who display behavioral or conduct disorders, but also for other children. This program is geared towards children between the ages of two through ten. â€Å"The Incredible Years Parents, Teachers, and Children Training Series, is designed to prevent, reduce, and treat conduct problems among children ages 2 to 10 and to increase their social competence. † (Wilson, 2000, Pg 1). Some goals to reduce conduct problems in children include decreasing negative behaviors and noncompliance with parents at home, decreasing peer aggression and disruptive behaviors in the classroom.Other goals include promoting social, emotional, and academic competence in children such as increasing children’s social skill s, increasing children’s understanding of feelings, increasing children’s conflict management skills and decrease negative attributions, as well as increasing academic engagement, school readiness, and cooperation with teachers. â€Å"A substantial body of research has clearly shown that young children with early-onset behavioral problems are at significantly greater risk of having severe antisocial difficulties, academic underachievement, school dropout, violence, and drug abuse in adolescence and adulthood. (Webster-Stratton & Herman, 2010). With this program, all children can have a crime free future. Conclusion In conclusion, treatment options are the ideal way to deal with juvenile delinquency. There are many attributes which take place in dealing with punishment or treatment for juvenile offenders. Most research suggests that treatment is the best options and helps reduce recidivism rate. For juvenile sex offenders, specific treatment helps reduce the likelihood of recidivism especially with cognitive behavior therapy.There are also numerous programs such as the one in North Carolina which deals directly with juvenile sex offenders. The program has a good turn around rate with the local group home facility. Every state has different data, and while comparing this data opens a person’s eyes as to the crime rate in their community. When people observe this data it gives them an incentive to get out in the community and help these juvenile delinquents. Even though Arizona has the least amount of juvenile arrests, this state has the highest recidivism rate amongst Arizona, Michigan as well as North Carolina.When trying to pin point on why a juvenile acts out, biological, psychological and sociological theories all play a major role. The reasoning can be from heredity, personality, environment as well as socioeconomic considerations. There are many early intervention programs readily available for youths as well as juvenile delinquents w hich have already committed a crime. Parent should begin to take an initiative in their children life at an early age to stop the deviant behavior in the future. After all, these children are our future. References: Alexander, M. A. (1999).Sexual offender treatment efficacy revisited. Sexual Abuse: Journal OfResearch And Treatment, 11(2), 101-116. doi:10. 1007/BF02658841. Retrieved fromEBSCOhost Database. Bartol, C. R. , & Bartol, A. M. (2011). Criminal behavior: A pscychological approach (9th ed. ). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 9780558591373 Beck, M. , Calhoun, K. , Hevener, G. , & Katzenelson, S. (2007). Juvenile recidivism study. DOI: www. nccourts. org/Courts/CRS/Councils/spac/Documents Collica, K. & Furst, G. (2012). Crime & society. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.Retrieved from Ashford Constellation. D'Angelo, J. M. (2002). Juvenile court judges' perceptions of what factors affect juvenileoffenders' likelihood of rehabilitation. Juvenile & Famil y Court Journal, 53(3), 43-55. Retrieved from ProQuest Database. Day, A. , Howells, K. , & Rickwood, D. (2004). Current trends in the rehabilitation of juvenileoffenders. Woden, Woden: Australian Institute of Criminology. Retrieved from ProQuestDatabase. Elam, P. , Siemon, C. , & Fitzpatrick, D. (2012). Michigan’s Statewide Juvenile Arrest AnalysisReport. Retrieved from Public http://michigancommitteeonjuvenilejustice. om/sitefiles/files/Documents/2012JuvenileArrestAnalysisReportVol1. pdf Foster, J. (2013). Barium springs, giving hope to children and families. Retrieved fromhttp://www. bariumsprings. org/page. cfm? id=32 Halliday, R. (2011). Arizona department of public safety. Retrieved fromhttp://www. azdps. gov/About/Reports/docs/Crime_In_Arizona_Report_2009. pdf Listwan, S. J. (2013). Introduction to juvenile justice. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint, Education,Inc. Martin, G. (2005). Juvenile justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. DOI:www. sagepub. com/books/Book226433 MDHS. (2013).Juvenile accountability block grants (jabg). Retrieved fromhttp://www. michigan. gov/dhs/0,4562,7-124-5453_34044_34052-15632–,00. html NCDJJ. (2010). 2009 annual report north carolina department of juvenile justice. Retrievedfrom website:http://www. juvjus. state. nc. us/resources/pdf_documents/annual_report_2009. pdf Pullman, L. , & Seto, M. C. (2012). Assessment and treatment of adolescent sexual offenders:Implications of recent research on generalist versus specialist explanations. Child Abuse& Neglect, 36(3), 203-209. doi:10. 1016/j. chiabu. 2011. 11. 003. Retrieved fromEBSCOhost Database. Puzzanchera, C. nd Adams, B. (2012). Juvenile Arrests 2009. Office of Juvenile Justice andDelinquency Prevention. Retrieved from http://www. ojjdp. gov Starky, C. (2012). Teen courts: Juvenile probation. Retrieved fromhttp://www. superiorcourt. maricopa. gov/JuvenileProbation/Probation/teenCourt. asp Wilson, J. F. (2012). Introduction to biological psychology. San Diego, C A: BridgepointEducation, Inc. Webster-Stratton, C. , & Herman, K. C. (2010). Disseminating Incredible Years Series earlyintervention programs: Integrating and sustaining services between school and home. Psychology In The Schools, 47(1), 36-54.

Protists essays

Protists essays Protists are plant-like, animallike, or fungi-like organisms with one or more cells (single or multicelluar organisms). Asexual reproduction is common. It occurs by mitosis or binary fission in most species. Sexual reproduction is less common and has not been seen in many protists. Protists get food and energy one of two ways. They get their food (energy) either by using photosynthesis (called Autotrophic) or eating other protists or bacteria (called Heterotrophic). Protists are always found in damp or wet areas. They are found almost everywhere that has water. Some protists are attached to rocks and others drift on the surface of the water. The ones that float freely are called plankton. Some live in body fluids, tissues or cells of hosts. Phytoplankton are the bottom of the food chain in most fresh and sea water. Throughout the world they are responsible for 50% of organic matter. There are 3 types of protists: algae, protozoa, and slime molds. Most algae make their food using photosynthesis, which uses chlorophyll and sunlight like plants. Slime molds are something like fungi and something like animals. There are three types of slime molds, but only one is a protist. The kind that is a protest is called cellular slime mold. The word protozoa come from the Greek for little animal. They sometimes live and form colonies. Protozoa get their food by hunting other microbes. They mainly eat bacteria, but some also eat other protozoa and bits of tissue from other living things, which is called organic matter and sometimes fungi. Asexual reproduction for protozoa includes binary fission and mitosis. Some reproduce sexually during a time of their life cycle. Most protists can move. They are called Motile if the can move. There are 3 different ways protists can move: with cilia, which are hair like structures; with flagellates, which are whip like structures; and using amoeboid motion, which ...

Compare and Contrast the Egyptian Palette of Narmer and the essays

Compare and Contrast the Egyptian Palette of Narmer and the essays Narmer was the name of the Egyptian king who ruled in 3100 BCE the first dynastic period of Egypt The palette which is made of Mudstone depicts scenes in high relief and the kings name using pictographs (an early form of writing, Narmer = fish and chisel). Palettes were used for grinding and this one being found in the temple of Horus may have been used for religious ceremonies. King Narmer is the main character in the various scenes; the images show him as the great unifier, protector, and leader in Hieratic Scale. Hieratic Scale signifies the status of an individual or groups by relative size. The images on the front and back of the palette show Narmer as the absolute ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt using natural (dead enemy, soldiers and servants) and super-natural forms (Long necked feline creatures, Horus (falcon with human hands) and Bulls with human faces). Naramsin was the name of a grandson of the Akkadian King Sargon who ruled northern Mesopotamia in 2332 BCE. The Stele, which is an upright stone, depicts and image in high relief of the King and his soldiers on a mountain with his enemy dead, dieing or pleading for mercy. It is believed to have been created to celebrate/record his military victory. The shape of the Stele is included as part of the artwork. The Stele stone, is mountain in shape, and the scene depicted, takes place on a mountain giving it a highly stylized visualization. The King is ascending the mountain wearing a horned crown under images of three suns (solar gods) above, and soldiers below. The components of the image are also made to Hieratic Scale. The king is bigger and more centered relative to other components of the total image. The two pieces, The Palette of Narmer, and the Stele of Naramsin, share the concept of presenting a scene, which is meant to awe the viewer and ingrain the thought of Imperial Authority (Rulers either being gods or god-like). The rulers by ...

A Review of Teamwork an Episode in Allegiance, an American Drama Series

A Review of Teamwork an Episode in Allegiance, an American Drama Series Reading Television: Allegiance Consumers are indulged by media through watching television based on themes that capture their attention. Recently, I watched an episode Teamwork from the TV show Allegiance on NBC. Allegiance is about Alex O’ Conner, who is a young man that does not know that his family are Russian spies. He works for the CIA as an analyst, which results in conflict of interests. His parents work for a spy organization, who wants the files, which can potentially destroy American core values. Alex is working with the CIA to foil Rezident’s plans in obtaining the files. In the episode Teamwork, Alex confronts his parents by accusing them that they are Russian spies. Throughout this whole episode, there are stereotypical examples that portray how media views men, women, people of color, and American nationalism. This episode portrays Russian stereotypes of women, men, politics and economy. Allegiance highlights prejudices, through representation based on character behavior in different scenarios. The music, shots, and characters represents the theme of allegiance and nationalism. The scene opens with Alex demanding to know the truth from his parents about Mikeal, because his files are a threat. Alex asked accusatory questions about Mikeal and his files. As a result, Katya becomes hysterical, and throws Alex off, by confessing that she had an affair, which was just another lie. This scene, portrayed the stereotype that Russian women are gold diggers, because they only want to live comfortably and be dependent on a male figure. When Katya mentioned she attended, border school in America, it also brought up a political notion of Russia sending children to America for better opportunities. During this whole scene, the music was quick, light and dramatic. This represented Alex’s mood on how he felt when Katya constantly disappeared when he was a child. Alex represents the American ideals which are justice and liberty, however Katya and Mark represent the Russian socialist mentality. There are many instances when we watch a series when we do not know the true reason why the director choose to shoot a scene a certain way. In this master shot, Alex is shown being angry. There are more superimposed shots when information is revealed about his mother’s disappearances. The argument gets more heated, there are close ups of Alex, Katya and Mark. The camera stays focused on Katya’s reaction from her affair confessions. When Alex’s youngest sister Sarah, walks into the kitchen, she is ignorant about the situation. Sarah symbolizes the innocence in not knowing that her family are spies. Natalie, is Alex’s older sister whose boyfriend is a Russian spy, who works for the enemy in NYC. Natalie plays a vital role by bugging Alex’s cellphone and computer as a way to collect information from the CIA. The scene opens with Natalie and Viktor in bed, being woken up by a phone call from Rezident. Viktor is told that Alex is threatening his parents if they do not tell him the truth. There is parallel editing between the scenes when Alex confronts his parents, to Natalie and Viktor rushing into traffic, and there is a zoom in shot of Roman (main boss of Rezident), giving the order to assassinate the family to emphasize the point that he is in charge. After Viktor and Natalie stop the assault, there is a POV shot of Alex leaving the apartment in shock. The music was heavy, during the montage shoots and parallel editing emphasized. This shows how close Alex learned the truth, until his mother lied to him again. When the scene closes, everyone is safe but appalled with Katya’s romantic affair confession. The scene jump cuts, to Moscow a year before Operation: Black Dagger was put into play. The scene shows a conference that include white, European men who are wearing either professional suits or military uniforms. The audience is portrayed into knowing that these men have decision making power. This represents the Russian society, as sexist towards women because they are behind in providing them equality. The entire scene shows a man speaking to a large group about weakness in American economy. They are questioning United States power, because their only punishment is sanctions. Since American global influence is decreasing, Moscow feels they are at an advantage. However, one of the military officers disagrees with Black Dagger and calls it madness. But the speaker counters that remark with â€Å"Madness is American sanctions, madness is the last of Soviet sovereignty†. This scene represents politics by explaining the importance of those missing files. The missing files contain a plan that could potentially destroy American core values. This episode presents different beliefs and loyalties that result in conflict of interests. Nationalism influences decision making in different characters. In this series, women are used as pawns to satisfy a male’s needs. One of the many stereotypes portrayed about women in the workplace is a scene with Sam and Michelle played by Kenneth Choi and Floriana Lima. Sam questions Michelle’s place in the workplace to what she replies â€Å"Oh Sam, you have such a constrained view of me.† This shows that that even though she is a successful Hispanic women working in a male-dominated field of law enforcement, her supervisor will never see her as equal. Also, when Michelle is told to get a search warrant from the New York Attorney General’s office, Sam tells Alex to accompany her. Sam believes she will not get the warrant on her own. This represents what women face today in the workplace. There is a scene with Natalie and Viktor; that portrays Natalie through a stereotype that women in a relationship needs a man’s approval to feel complete and happy. This is a stereotypical image that presents women as being insecure about themselves. A women’s opinion is also disregarded because they are viewed as inferior. Katya’s advice got completely brushed off by Mark, who choose to go his way to the Brooklyn Navy Yard. When Katya had a gun in her hands, Mark looked at her in fear. This shows that he felt uncomfortable with a women who had power. The Allegiance characters embody certain traits that are correct in some cases. Alex O’Conner, the main protagonist represents being a hero, he is a smart CIA analyst with a promising future. His supervisor Sam, is trying to groom him for a better position but, also feels threatened by his talent. Special Agent Brock is the overseer of the organization, and does not like his authority questioned. Roman also does not like his authority to be questioned. They all feel that when they are questioned, they would be viewed as less than a man. For example, Roman needed to regain his control by killing Viktor’s friend, as a way to show dominance. Mark plays the husband role, so his decisions cannot be questioned by either Katya or Natalie. A scene that shows this power struggle is when Mark confronts Katya about the affair. When Katya says that she had to make a decision for the family, Mark puts her in an inferior that she is not one to make them. This show is great in cont ext, however when it comes to stereotypes Allegiance is a show to see. Allegiance exhibits an interesting storyline that shows the intertwining between politics and family matters. However, the characters role in the show present stereotypes that can put people in a box. This show unintentionally creates views to have a limited mindset of the real world.

Critical analysis of client care practices , innovation and pathways Research Paper

Critical analysis of client care practices , innovation and pathways for rewarding healthy and productive behaviour among senior - Research Paper Example This will assist to recommend possible improvement strategies which will energize the employees to achieve the organizational target. Introduction In modern organizations, worker motivation is an issue of significant concern to the human resource managers due to its close association with employee satisfaction. Consequently, global research has considerably paid attention to employee satisfaction strategies in different organizations (Aizcorbe, Moylan & Robbins, 2009: Arthur, 2000). The reason why worker motivation has garnered a lot of interest is because research has proven that satisfied workers are productive workers (Braganza, Awazu, & Desouza, 2009). Since employees form the labour resources in a business environment, there is need to seek optimal utilization of their skills and knowledge towards the development of organizational goals (Borzaga & Tortia, 2006). Different organizations adopt different employee reward strategies but the common objective is to align the employees to the business goals and objectives (Carl & Patton, 2001). In the health sector, employee satisfaction is important due to the great sacrifice that this sector requires given the existing shortage of working personnel in this sector (Damanpour, 1991: Hong Lu, While, & Barriball, 2005). Hence, rewarding productive staff, both junior and senior, would significantly increase their contribution to client service. The aim of this research is to investigate the staff reward strategies that Ghana university hospitals have employed to maintain a high morale among their staff. Both qualitative and quantitative surveys will be conducted to examine for this research to come up with research based conclusions and recommendations. Problem statement Lack of effective employee reward schemes in organizations limits the utilization of the labour resource in a business (Commongood Careers, 2008). Poorly motivated employees work for money and have their goals misaligned with the organizational goals . The shortage of medical personnel in the health sector requires that the few be optimally utilized to increase ensure that service delivery is efficient (Greene, 2009 : Gruneberg, 2001). Therefore, there is a need to employ innovative and dynamic motivational strategies in the health sector in order to ensure that employees drive both short term and long term goals of the organization to a success (Heskett, Sasser, & Schesinger, 1997). In Ghana, the ration of the patients to doctor ratio is high and hence efficient services can only be achieved if the employees are adequately motivated. The essence of this research paper is to evaluate the policies that have been put forward in Ghana University hospitals, and to provide recommendations to improve these policies. Objectives Main objectives To evaluate the innovation and pathways that public university hospitals of Ghana employ to reward healthy and productive behavior among senior and junior staff. Specific objectives To examine th e different criteria used to assess the productivity of a staff in Ghana university Hospitals. To examine the staff-reward mechanism that is used to reward productive employees in these hospitals. To examine the degree of employee satisfaction that has been achieved in these public hospitals. To establish the quality of service that has been ach

Women in the Second World War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Women in the Second World War - Essay Example This essay will compare and contrast the wartime experiences of these three great women. Therese Bonney achieved world fame as a photo journalist during the Second World War. She is greatly popular for her work which revealed the havocs of war on an innocent group of people. She initially acquired attention for her revelation of the war between Russia and Finland. Being the only correspondent who was there, she had the whole account to herself and was honored with the White Rose of Finland for her courage. Throughout the Second World War she toured all over western Europe capturing the miseries of the affected children in her photographs which she soon after included in her master work ‘Europe’s Children’. It was her objective to aid in building international ties between European populations, specifically the Americans and French. She also joined the Red Cross campaigns throughout France. She was grandly celebrated in the United States and Europe. Just like Bonney, Toni Frissell became a major female figure in photo journalism during the World War II. She voluntarily shared her photographic talents to the American Red Cross in 1941. Afterward she served the Eight Army Air Force and became the certified photo journalist of the Women’s Army Corps. She photographed a vast number of images of soldiers, nurses, and abandoned children for the services of the aforementioned organizations. Her moving pictures of African American air fighters and military women were employed to promote public support and sympathy for African-American and women in the service. Her only difference with Bonney is the extent of her fame. She is widely known locally but she did not achieve the same international fame that Bonney achieved. Meanwhile, a remarkable woman who became renowned during World War II, Janet Flanner, raised her name to the pedestal through writing. Janet

How far did the 'Bush Doctrine' constitute a radical shift in US Essay

How far did the 'Bush Doctrine' constitute a radical shift in US foreign policy - Essay Example A historical study is being attempted in this essay to bring out all the elements connected with American foreign policy and its relationship to other countries. Further, various elements of the foreign policy is analyzed here. It is seen that after the Second World War, the Cold War between USA and USSR contributed much to the formation of foreign policies in America. The two pillars of American policy at that time were deterrence and containment. After the fall of USSR in 1991, America became supreme power in the world. As a powerful nation it had to take clear cut foreign policies and the implementation of national security against the uprisings of different segments. But things changed soon. After 2000 America witnessed many damages on its national security. The attack on the Twin Towers and Pentagon on September 11, 2001 made America to think more about changing its foreign policy. The president of the time, George W. Bush expressed the need for the change of policy through his set of guidelines, commonly known as ‘Bush’s doctrine. His doctrine changed the foreign policy of America from deterrence and containment to pre-emptive action against the terrorists. The present essay tries to find out how the Bush’s doctrine acted as a great shift in the foreign policy of America. ... ‘America now commanded a degree of power greater than anything recorded in all of human history. No one doubted this; nor did anyone imagine that any other country or group of countries currently existed with the capacity, or the will, to challenge American power.’1 President Bush: His life, visions and Interests George W. Bush is the only President with an MBA in the history of America. He was born on July 6, 1946, in a political as well as business family in New Haven, Connecticut. Heron Marquez in the biography of George W. Bush says, that ‘His grandfather was Prescott Bush, a United states Senator from Connecticut. Other relatives were bankers and Wall Street stockbrokers.’2 His father was George Herbert Walker Bush, America’s 41st President. The background of politics has made him successful at politics along with business. In 1994 he made his entry into politics becoming the governor of Texas. The election for the president in 2000 made many str uggles for him. He was not supposed to be the president by the popular vote, but with the help of court he successfully became the 43rd president of America. In the election campaign Bush stressed the America’s foreign policy on maintaining peace. ‘He summarized his plans by saying, â€Å"I will renew the bond of trust between the American president and the American military. I will defend the American people against missiles and terror. I will begin creating the military of the next country.†3 The speeches of Bush during the campaign were mainly on the matters of American economy, education, and personal aspects. Even though much was not mentioned regarding the foreign policy he had clearly

English Language Mastery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

English Language Mastery - Essay Example The out of class essays significantly helped me identify my strengths and weaknesses in the mastery of English language. When I was writing the two essays, I realized I could use some of the vocabularies that I had learnt in the course of my study. As featured in the essay on Inequality in America, I was able to use clearly and precisely words such as ‘perpetuate’, ‘rudimentary’ and ‘adamant’ among others. Such words, I did not have a slight idea of what they entailed. The same translates to the essay on The Effectiveness of Education in our Society. In addition, there was a clear mastery of sentence structuring. Initially, my sentences used to be lengthy and I used to receive comments that they were ‘ambiguous’. The use of speech marks has also been widely entrenched in my writings. I used to find it difficult to quote phrases from other sources and whenever I tried, there lacked coherence with the rest of my work. Through the essa ys, I was also able to perfect the art of writing an essay; this involves the arrangement of work into introduction, body and the conclusion. In addition, every beginning sentence of every paragraph had to carry a meaning that is explained in the rest of the paragraph.The in-class essay formed the foundation of my writing. These helped shape my skills such that the out of class assignments became easy to approach. There were myriad of challenges that I encountered through these assignments. Firstly, tenses were proving somehow challenging to master.

Constitutional Rights and Discrimination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Constitutional Rights and Discrimination - Essay Example Although not actually irritating to the others, seeing Abdul pray to his god, Clyde was specifically disliking this fact, as a result, the collision between the two started. However, being the one in the lower level, Abdul knows retaliating to the actions of his boss would simply bring him into a rather complicated situation with his boss. So what he did was to simply allow time to pass through the possibility that somehow his boss might someday give him a break from the discriminative treatment that he is receiving. With the patient dealing of Abdul with the situation, Clyde on the other hand never stopped hatred and continued to discriminate Abdul’s being that later on resulted to more damaging effects on Abdul when he was pushed by Clyde resulting to having three injured bones and causing Abdul’s hospitalization with a high amount of payment needed to complete the medication needs. After which, the worse yet came when he received a pink slip indicating that he was al ready terminated from his job. The Constitution of Civil Rights had been rather established to secure the rights of the human individuals living in the human society as they deal with the different people from different races. This set of laws and regulations are all designed to assist each and everyone to realize their worth as persons and realize the fact they are worthy of respect no matter what race or religion they come from. 1Within the paragraphs that follow, the constitutional issues that were raced during the case’s discussion shall be presented so as to give a clear picture as to how or where the situation of Abdul and Clyde could actually be questioned by the law and have the oppressor pay for the damages that he may have caused his victim. The constitutional laws on human rights had been established practically to protect each person from any particular form

Portrait of Augustus of Primaporta Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Portrait of Augustus of Primaporta - Essay Example Through this sculpture, Augustus meant to publicize his relationship with Athen’s authority and supremacy. Simultaneously, he meant to proclaim autocracy and progeny of God for himself and his family. The marble portrait of Augustus depicts an air of commandership with athletic perfection. His armour and angelic support (Cupid /son of Venus) on the side shows that he has been a significant ‘Imaginer’ by proclaiming association with God. His raised arm show how Augustus has been a leader and is followed by many in Rome. Simultaneously, his appearance and posture matches with ‘Spear- Bearer’ Statue. Therefore, he has youthful appearance and trim shaped body. Since Romans liked to show perfection with supernatural association, hence; this portrait contains Cupid holding onto Augustus side. Cupid is riding on a dolphin, which was a sign of his Navy. Therefore, this shows that his Naval army had supernatural aid. Since he also proclaimed that he is a descendent of God; thus, it was obvious to expect excellence in the statue as

Constitutional Rights and Discrimination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Constitutional Rights and Discrimination - Essay Example Although not actually irritating to the others, seeing Abdul pray to his god, Clyde was specifically disliking this fact, as a result, the collision between the two started. However, being the one in the lower level, Abdul knows retaliating to the actions of his boss would simply bring him into a rather complicated situation with his boss. So what he did was to simply allow time to pass through the possibility that somehow his boss might someday give him a break from the discriminative treatment that he is receiving. With the patient dealing of Abdul with the situation, Clyde on the other hand never stopped hatred and continued to discriminate Abdul’s being that later on resulted to more damaging effects on Abdul when he was pushed by Clyde resulting to having three injured bones and causing Abdul’s hospitalization with a high amount of payment needed to complete the medication needs. After which, the worse yet came when he received a pink slip indicating that he was al ready terminated from his job. The Constitution of Civil Rights had been rather established to secure the rights of the human individuals living in the human society as they deal with the different people from different races. This set of laws and regulations are all designed to assist each and everyone to realize their worth as persons and realize the fact they are worthy of respect no matter what race or religion they come from. 1Within the paragraphs that follow, the constitutional issues that were raced during the case’s discussion shall be presented so as to give a clear picture as to how or where the situation of Abdul and Clyde could actually be questioned by the law and have the oppressor pay for the damages that he may have caused his victim. The constitutional laws on human rights had been established practically to protect each person from any particular form

Original Writing Essay Example for Free

Original Writing Essay As she lay there silently on her back, staring deeply into the intricate yet excruciatingly dull pattern on the textured ceiling- as if it were a piece of fine, overpriced artwork, she let her thought processes wander over exhausted terrain. She thought of life, of death, of love, of hate, of god and everything along the way. What was it all for? She began to scribble a few notes down on a piece of paper in front of her. Her mind began to flutter from one feeling to the next. Im reading all the time of hate and anger and frustration. Im hearing nothing but the pain of others. I see the agony of all around me. And I have felt it, breathed it, been engulfed by it. I understand the need to vent, to get it all out. But I realise now that I can no longer accept it. Blood is on the minds of millions of innocent children, searching for an answer to this emptiness that harbours our death wish. We hold, in our hand, the power to steal but nothing is taken without payment. Give and take, live and let live. No harm done, no penalty. Even the most gentle of beings get judged by the monster. This is no dragon, no giant; this is a group, a society, a network. This monster is sacrificing the happiness of the innocent for suicide. This monster is killing off what may be our last chance. Children beaten down and left to bleed and to cry, they are screaming but no one cares, no one sees them. They are irrelevant, theses children are they are the children of you and yours and people you know. They are outcasts these children are. They are banned from beliefs of any sort of rebellion or belief in other gods. But these children need no god. These children worship themselves. They are good and are portrayed as evil, yet they are shunned and thrown away. Put on display for window shoppers to point and stare and mock. These children are not different, they are not unique. The children are minions banned together to have their freedom. They are slaves to the system. Their innocence is overlooked but ignorant bystanders and administrators. These children are against everything, against god, against the devil, against you, against me. They refuse to worship the nine inch nails of your so called Christ. You will never win! The children will persevere. The children will run free. You will die someday. They will to. They know that in the end we are all alone and youve spent your lives convinced that there is always someone looking out for you and your heretic children. These children know better than you. These children know fate. They know yours and you can sense it. They can smell the fear in your shattered voice. They can smell failure. The innocent children have a blood lust and a hit list I guess this means you will die. Too bad we couldnt save you from the innocent children they killed us too. We are locked inside our minds and we are rotting here now Everything dies she thought, but she still hadnt figured out how to truly live yet. Would her life come to an end before she even knew the answers to all of her questions? It seemed meaningless. Everything seemed that way lately. Her life had become a painful cycle of the same boring events, day after everlasting day. Her friends had begun to slowly detach themselves from her, and it made her question herself. Shed been gone for so long when she moved away, and her world felt wonderful when she had returned to her home, and the people she had taken advantage of before. Theyd all seemed glad to see her, and shed never felt so important. She fell back into her circle of friends and remembered all that she had walked away from. She was happy again, and that was good. One day, it was like the world had shifted suddenly and everything changed. People stopped talking to her. They no longer came by at all odd hours of the night bearing gifts and happy drug-induced smiles. Distancing them. Maybe they all finally came to the conclusion that they hadnt been missing much after all. People tend to romanticize things to a definite fault, and when they realize theyve set themselves up for disappointment, they dont always realize that they themselves are not the only ones being affected by their great epiphany. They sometimes forget the person in the middle of it all, maybe even unintentionally, but without even thinking twice She asked herself what she possibly could have done to turn them away so suddenly. Was it just her character in general? Were some mindless beings getting rushes of power by spreading dirty lies about her as their new form of narrow-minded offence? Were they sick of her already? The fact that she found herself with so few people left to talk to wasnt what bothered her. It was the fact that she was entirely oblivious to the cause of all of this landfill that made her question herself over and over again. The more she thought about it, the wider the possibility grew that they had never really enjoyed her company in the first place; it was all a terrible charade. She hated that she could be that person that people associated themselves with for mere lack of anything at all better to do. Was she that person that they all talked about in her absence, like she had seen them do to others in times passed? Did they avoid her when they saw her in the streets? Were they all two-faced after all? Again, her reasoning began to shift. She wanted no part in any kind of comradeship with a person too shallow to tell her to go away in person. She felt, she knew she was better off by herself. Somehow she felt more at ease in her own company anymore. Shed learned a lot about people in the years prior, and it sickened her to think about what humanity has come down to, how meaningless people have become. She honestly didnt mind not having friends. Of course friends are wonderful to have, but she had found that she became more herself everyday she spent alone, and she liked that. She had come to the abrupt realization long ago that people really arent worth much anymore; definitely not worth wasting your days trying to change or analyze, or even hold a civil open conversation with, for that matter. And again, it all comes back around to the irrelevance of everything. Why had she just wasted her time thinking about these people that she doesnt even like to surround herself with anymore? Since shed returned, everything had changed so dramatically. Her friends were not the same people they had been three years ago, and they never would be again. She knew she could do nothing, and had accepted this fact, but it lingered painfully in the back of the bedlam of a mind she possessed. She wished for simpler times. She began to let her mind jump to other things. Shed tired herself of pondering anything even remotely related her connections with other people, and had come to the conclusion that she was indifferent on the matter. She really couldnt bring herself to care much anymore. If someone desired to speak with her, theyd approach her, and she would listen, but making any sort of an effort to please another person seemed ridiculous to her Meaningless. The past three hours had been meaningless, and so were the thoughts she had spent that time thinking. And now, so were the people that had provoked these very thoughts.

Transhumanism: Biotechnology and its Role in the Singularity

Transhumanism: Biotechnology and its Role in the Singularity BY SHAYMA ABUKAR ABSTRACT   Ã‚   Due to rapid advances in technology, our world is slowly progressing to the point where we may surpass human limitations. This report will aim to focus on the developments of biotechnology and its importance in the achieving this post-human state, as well as its role in reaching a hypothetical singularity. It will also follow the goals of transhumanism and the ethics related to genetic engineering. It is clear that if we are to achieve transhumanist goals, through the aid of, not just AI, but also biotechnology, life as we know will be vastly different. All research conducted for this report is secondary and data was retrieved from journals, scientific magazines and online articles[DS1]. INTRODUCTION What is transhumanism? With life becoming more and more efficient through emerging technologies, humanity is struggling to keep up with our rate of progression. Transhumanists belong to a group that believe we will one day enhance ourselves to the point of being post-human. Transhumanism can be defined as the belief or theory that the human race can evolve beyond its current physical and mental limitations, especially by means of science and technology. (Oxford Dictionary 2016). Its a movement that believes that, through genetic engineering, nanotechnology, artificial intelligence, etc., humanity will progress to a point of surpassing human limitations such as death, disease and other biological frailties (McNamee and Edwards 2006). The three main goals of transhumanism are achieving super-longevity, super-intelligence, and super-wellbeing. These goals can be achieved through our rapid technological advancements. Super-longevity is becoming more and more likely with our ever advancing medicine and drug development. Through genetic engineering and genome editing, scientists are now able to cure what were once incurable diseases[DS2]. Transhumanists generally fall into two categories: strong and weak. Weak transhumanists believe that technology should be used to simply enhance humanity, whether that be intelligence, appearance, life span, etc. (Strong Transhumanism | Ethical Issues In Health Care 2014). Strong transhumanists on the other hand have the radical belief that technology should be used to develop humans to another species all together. The ideas advocated by weak transhumanists are already accepted by many in todays world, and the development of drugs and nanotechnology to help solve medical issues is already seen as ethical by a majority. Strong transhumanist goals to develop a new species entirely, on the other hand, is met with accusations that its unethical and unlikely to happen. SINGULARITY Transhumanists generally discuss the concept of the singularity, which can be defined in various ways. In the mathematical world, a singularity is the point at which a function takes an infinite value. However, in regards to technological advancement, the singularity is most commonly defined as a hypothetical moment in time when artificial intelligence and other technologies have become so advanced that humanity undergoes a dramatic and irreversible change (The Best Definition Of Singularity 2016 ). The concept of the singularity is seen as either thrilling or daunting. Whilst techno-optimists believe it is sure to happen in the near future, those skeptical of the singularity and transhumanism believe that it is either impossible, or sure to do more harm than good. In an article on The AI revolution (Urban, T 2015), Tim Urban discusses the concept of DPU (Die Progress Unit). He introduces it as a measure of how far into the future an individual would have to travel before they die of shock due to the vastly developed and technologically advanced environments (relative to their time). Bringing a man from 1750 to 2016 would expose him to technology far beyond comprehensible to someone of his time, thus shocking him to the point of death. His DPU, therefore, is achieved in merely a few hundred years. However, in order for a DPU to be achieved in 1750, the person would have to travel a lot further back, to 12,000 BC. The man from 12,000 BC would then die of shock after experiencing civilisation and the more complex architecture of 1750[DS3]. As Kevin Kelly from Wired magazine stated, all change in the last million years will be superseded by the change in the next 5 minutes. The article suggests that the rate of our advancements are staggering, and as much as AI plays an important role in reaching the singularity, genetic engineering methods and biotechnology have begun to make just as large an impact. Scientists are growing increasingly worried that genome editing is moving too fast for humanity to catch up. Biotechnology plays a key role in achieving this hypothetical event that is so often discussed amongst transhumanists, and development of this technology will allow humans to alter their genome with precision and ease. The more advanced this technology becomes, the easier it will be to effectively surpass human limitations and for life to be transformed beyond recognition. In order for this to be widely accepted, it will need to be used for medical purposes only. GENE EDITING   Ã‚   One of the ways biotechnology is advancing our bodies and developing medical methods is through gene editing or genome editing. Gene editing can be described as the process of inserting, deleting or replacing areas of DNA within an organisms genome. This is done using molecular enzymes that act as molecular scissors (Editing Our DNA With Molecular Scissors | Understanding Genetics). This technology has incredible medical applications and may be used, in the future, to cure a vast number of diseases. Other applications of biotechnology include gene therapy and genetic screening, which both help solve medical issues. DNA is a cells genetic material and consists of a sugar phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases, and it forms a double helix structure[DS4]. These nitrogenous bases make up nucleotides which carry the genetic data (Whats A Genome?). These nucleotides make up what is known as the genome. An organisms genome contains all of its genetic data thus containing all the information needed to build and maintain that organism. By finding methods and techniques to edit and change parts of our genome, we can effectively cure genetic diseases and medical problems. In 2003, a collaborative group of international scientists completed what is known as the Human Genome Project (What Is A Genome?). Coordinated by the National Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Energy, the project sought to sequence an entire human genome. By achieving this, it paved the way for new genetic technologies and techniques to be developed[DS5]. Scientists have previously struggled to find a method of genome editing that is safe for human use, however, the development of CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) has proven that it is now possible to genetically engineer our genome without damaging our DNA (Zhang, S 2015[DS6]). CRISPR is a component of a bacterias immune system that recognises and remembers threatening areas of viruses (known as phages) in order to equip itself to defend against them is they were to attack again. It also involves an enzyme called Cas which then precisely cuts the viruss DNA and prevents it from dividing. This intelligent mechanism now allows scientists to accurately and precisely edit and cut out parts of DNA. The specific enzyme used is known as Cas9, and whilst its responsible for snipping parts of the DNA, it works to edit the genome with CRISPR, which is a collection of DNA sequences telling Cas9 where to cut. CRISPR is already being used as a possible treatment for eye diseases in animals and lung cancer in their first human trials (Le Page, M 2016). Scientists are using the technique to remove immune cells from the body, edit their DNA to make the better at killing cancer cells, then put them back. The rate at which gene editing is progressing is far beyond the expectations of many, and will continue to be developed at a staggering rate. As this progresses, the concept of the singularity begins to be more of a reality. Although CRISPRs merits currently lie within its medical applications, scientists are already figuring out ways to use it to understand the human genome and molecular biology as a whole. Another form of genome editing is TALEN (transcription activator-like effector proteins). These proteins, like CRISPR, also come from bacteria and use its adaptive immunity to edit areas of the genome. The first medical application of TALEN was on an 11-month old girl who suffered acute lymphoblastic leukemia which is a form of cancer of white blood cells. The mechanism was used to extract T cells, genetically alter them, then insert them back into the body so they can better fight against the cancerous cells (TALEN-Based Genome Editing | Thermo Fisher Scientific). ETHICAL, FINANCIAL AND SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS Opinions on transhumanism and the use of biotechnology differ between varying groups of people. Some of the concerns regarding transhumanism and its goal of super-longevity is due to the possibility of over population. Whilst many believe that the medical applications of biotechnology and genetic engineering do well to extend our life spans and prevent us succumbing to diseases, there are some who fear that our world would not be able to withstand increasingly large populations of people. It would have social and financial implications. It is seen as unethical once the technology is no longer used solely for medical purposes, but to extend our life span in the absence of disease. Religious groups of people also believe that transhumanism interferes too much with human nature and what God has created. If we were to use our technology to become a new species entirely, as strong transhumanists believe will happen, then it would mean religious beliefs would be compromised, therefore many are against the ideology (Messerly, J 2015). CONCLUSION The faster we develop biotechnology, the more efficient our methods of curing diseases become and therefore, we are able to use genetic engineering methods to achieve a longer life span. As well as achieving super-longevity, biotechnology can also aid us in developing ourselves to the point of becoming post-human, which may then lead to the singularity. Whilst these techniques and developments have positive medical applications, the rate at which we are progressing is so fast, that its difficult to predict the turnout of our actions and advancements. It may lead to unethical consequences and results that favour strong transhumanists, as opposed to weak transhumanists. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to Amelia and Nuffield for arranging this placement, and thank you to Dekkel and Andre for supporting and guiding us along the way, and providing up with useful resources. REFERENCES Editing Our DNA With Molecular Scissors | Understanding Genetics. Genetics.thetech.org. N.p., 2016. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. Messerly, John. Transhumanism And Religion. Ieet.org. N.p., 2016. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. Strong Transhumanism | Ethical Issues In Health Care. Scholarblogs.emory.edu. N.p., 2014. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. TALEN-Based Genome Editing | Thermo Fisher Scientific. Thermofisher.com. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. The Best Definition Of Singularity. Singularitysymposium.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. Urban, Tim. The Artificial Intelligence Revolution: Part 1 Wait But Why. Wait But Why. N.p., 2015. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. What Is A Genome?. Genetics Home Reference. N.p., 2016. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. Whats A Genome?. Genomenewsnetwork.org. N.p., 2016. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. Zhang, Sarah. Gizmodo.com. N.p., 2015. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. Le Page, Michael. New Scientist N.p., 2016. Mag. 1 Sep.t 2016. The new genetic lottery. New scientist N.p., 2016. Mag. 1 Sept. 2016. Does Evolution Lead To Singularity?. Singularity Weblog. N.p., 2015. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. Gene Editing. Horizondiscovery.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 1 Sept. 2016. [DS1]Good. [DS2]Good points, but need to be support with a reference. [DS3]Good. [DS4]Source needed [DS5]This paragraph is riddled with great points, but referencing sources will give it much more credibility [DS6]Good.